ISD Hawks 2010 - 2011.mp4
Great memories of my time in Dhaka at ISD.
Time flies as most of the students have now graduated and have moved onto university.
Time flies as most of the students have now graduated and have moved onto university.
Gender inequality in sport in sub-Saharan Africa - Challenging gender norms as a possible solution - by Terence Weston (MA)
Extracts from my paper on Gender inequality in sport and physical education in sub-Saharan Africa.
Below are the Introduction and chapters on Sport and Physical Education as a Fundamental Right for Everyone and the Barriers that are stopping women and girls from participating in sport within developing countries.
This was my first essay for my MA in International Education and Development. If you would like to read the full article please let me know.
In 1978 the United Nations Educational Scientific and Cultural Organization in Paris drew-up an international charter for physical education and sport that stated the physical education and sport is a fundamental right for everyone:
One of the fundamental driving forces behind the UN charter is the overwhelming evidence that regular physical activity and sport are strongly related to ‘good’ health. It has been well documented that the benefits of regular physical activity helps improve cardiovascular health, helps reduce the risk of diabetes, strengthens the bones to reduce the risk of osteoporosis, reduces the risk of obesity and helps fight some forms of cancer (Bruckner & Brown, 2005). Physical activity in regards to mental health alleviates symptoms of mild-to-moderate depression, reduces anxiety and stress, and brings mental health benefits such as improved self-confidence and self concept (Taylor et al, 1985).
Physical education in schools has proven to be crucial when it comes to developing the child’s capacity and willingness to move their bodies with meaning and expression. It helps them to develop poise, spatial awareness, coordination, and it develops their gross and fine motor skills. Physical education introduces a child to new sports and skills, and provides time for them to practice and develop, with the opportunity to master their skills, in a safe environment. In addition to the long list of physical benefits associated with physical education, there are hidden benefits such as sporting values including: fair play, teamwork, support, respect, cooperation, empowerment, leadership, inclusion, and the ability to connect people and communities with the notion of sportspersonship.
The values and benefits of physical education and sport can be extended a lot further than two paragraphs. The significance of health, (both mentally and physically) teamwork, inclusion, as well as the transference of skills to academia, the workplace and the community, cannot be under estimated, neither can the ‘enjoyment’ be. In development documentation, government polices, and in this essay, the notion ‘sport’ generally refers to physical education in schools, personal exercise/fitness, traditional sports, and recreational activities. By using such a broad definition of ‘sport’, it encompasses activities suitable to women and girls of all ages, abilities and from all socio-cultural backgrounds.
Access to sport is fundamental in attaining the rights and freedoms set out in international human rights, yet for many in sub-Saharan Africa, access to ‘sport’ has barriers. It is important to gain an understanding of what the gender barriers are in order to develop possible solutions or develop acceptable alternatives.
Martha Saavedra (2005) identifies three overarching categories that are the barriers stopping women and girls from participating in sport within developing countries: gender and sexuality, competing obligations and safety.
An examination of gender, sexuality and the roles in sport that society expects, accentuates the stereotypical concepts of what is feminine and what is masculine. Stereotypically (though unique in different cultural settings) masculinity is having the qualities and appearances that have been traditionally linked with having muscles, strength, aggression, logic, leadership and competitiveness. In contrast, being feminine is about possessing the qualities and appearance that has been traditionally linked with being soft, gentle, passive, intuitive, responsive and cooperative. Sport has traditionally been associated with the concept of masculinity and it still embodies essential masculine traits; historically a sport was a way men measured their heterosexual male superiority against other men. The stereotyping of gender roles in sport is not just confined to the developing world. In the developed world it is predominantly women who encounter discrimination through gender stereotyping in sport, with respect to levels of media coverage, salary contracts and sponsorships (Huggins and Randell 2007). In contrast, successful male athletes become heroes and idols to many in the developed and the developing world. In Nigeria the French soccer star Thiery Henry, at the height of his career with Arsenal FC, was considered Igwe (Monarch) amongst his fandom. Again, in contrast, successful heterosexual female and gay athletes receive media coverage when risking disrupting social order with sensationalized stories that are considered to be against perceived stereotypical norms (Meier, 2005; Olaoluwa & Adejayan, 2010). In the developing world it continues to be women that encounter the majority of discrimination through gender stereotyping. The issues that they face include gaining access to sport, as well as challenging the existing cultural gender roles in their countries, and challenging the concepts of what is feminine and what is masculine (Huggins and Randell 2007). Women in the developing world that are seen to participate in sport are risking their ‘femininity’ and because of this they are risking their place within society (Saavedra, 2005).
Sport is a physical activity; if a woman wants to play sport she has to at least display some of the qualities that are traditionally and stereotypically associated with man and masculinity. In traditionally patriarchal sub-Saharan Africa children are introduced to their socially differentiated roles at a very early age. The son’s role is seen as the future heads of the household and the main source of income, whilst the daughter’s role is one of domestication and obedience (Kambarami, 2006; McDowell & Pringle, 1992). Daughters who participate in sports are therefore seen to be acting in unfeminine ways and are considered a disgrace by their families, as a daughter’s role is to behave like a lady in order to attract a husband and become a mother and homemaker (Meier, 2005). Time and energy is dedicated to fulfilling family obligations. In Zimbabwe, food, safety, shelter, family and health are the primary concerns of girls with little free time available for sport or leisure time. Girls concentrate on what they see their mothers doing and thereby they replicate the skills that have kept their mothers and grandmothers subjugated for generations. While boys have very few chores to do, which gives them the gift of time for outdoor activities, as they play with balls, run along roads, climb trees, jump over rivers and gullies, boys at an early age get to identify their sporting talents (Saavedra, 2005; Manyonganise, 2010).
Losing femininity, or the perceived loss of femininity by society, is a major barrier that prevents women and girls from getting involved in sport across developing countries. As a consequence of these barriers women’s sport in developing countries lacks female role models (Meier, 2005). Copying actions and behaviours, and by interacting socially with peers within the values and concepts of moral good sportspersonship, are some of the fundamental ways that young people learn. The observation of positive role models engaging in sport plays a crucial role in developing the skills and qualities of a good sportsperson that younger children need. Positive role models can be parents, mentors, teachers, coaches and peers, if their attitudes, behaviours, and the programme that they are promoting is a moral one. Unfortunately the lack of female athletes, teachers, coaches, leaders and decision makers in sports and in schools, is another barrier in achieving equity in sports and physical education (Saavedra, 2005).
The concept of safety and sport relates to the physical risk associated with participating in an activity, the standard of the equipment and the facilities that are available, the location of the facility and the logistics required to get to and from the event, and the verbal harassment and physical violence towards women and men or girls and boys (Saavedra, 2005). In Zimbabwe, like many other sub-Saharan countries, man owns the public spaces and travels there freely, where the women’s domain is in the privacy of the home. Women and girls have their physical mobility controlled by man, and as a consequence, society creates moral spaces that have been described as safe spaces for women such as the home, church, markets, clinics or in the tailors. Access to these spaces thus fulfills the concept of woman in her domestic role of homemaker and mother. Space is crucial for physical exercise, but gaining access to safe spaces can be difficult particularly as girls approach adolescence and are faced with even greater restrictions on their mobility which effects their participation. Regrettably for women, sport stadia, swimming pools, gymnasiums and training grounds all fall within the category of public places that are considered unsafe and immoral (Brady & Khan, 2002; Manyonganise, 2010; Ramtohul, 2010).
Harassment and violence can come from other athletes, teachers, coaches, family, spectators who are there to watch the game, or even passersby such as groups of street boys dependending on where the event is taking place. An example of violence combined with expected obligations of a girl’s role within a family in sub-Saharan Africa, identifies a 15-year-old girl describing her father’s opinion towards her starting to play sport, in this example football in Kenya with the Mathare Youth Sports Association (MYSA):
Challenging social expectations, traditional cultures and breaking sexual stereotypes will enviably come across resistance.
Below are the Introduction and chapters on Sport and Physical Education as a Fundamental Right for Everyone and the Barriers that are stopping women and girls from participating in sport within developing countries.
This was my first essay for my MA in International Education and Development. If you would like to read the full article please let me know.
Gender inequality in sport in sub-Saharan Africa
Challenging gender norms as a possible solution
by Terence Weston
by Terence Weston
Introduction
The essay focuses on “gender” in terms of development and explores why the biggest issue in sport in development is unequal access for women and girls. Sport and physical education have so many proven benefits for women and men and yet access to involvement in sport is limited for so many women. This essay explores the possible barriers that are preventing women in sub-Saharan African from accessing sport. The barriers faced by women are discussed by using the overarching themes identified by Martha Saavedra (2005): gender and sexuality, competing obligations and safety. The essay identifies the initiatives that have been introduced in Kenya, including recommendations being made both at a macro and micro level, aimed at challenging social norms, and reducing gender inequality within sport in sub-Saharan Africa. Finally the essay looks at what the international community has done, and continues to do, to break down the barriers and change the inequity for women and girls in sport, with reference to the Millennium Development Goals (MDGs).
Sport and Physical Education – A Fundamental Right for Everyone
1.1 Every human being has a fundamental right of access to physical
education and sport, which are essential for the full development of
his personality. The freedom to develop physical, intellectual and
moral powers through physical education and sport must be
guaranteed both within the educational system and in other aspects of
social life. (UNESCO, 1978, p.32)
Physical education in schools has proven to be crucial when it comes to developing the child’s capacity and willingness to move their bodies with meaning and expression. It helps them to develop poise, spatial awareness, coordination, and it develops their gross and fine motor skills. Physical education introduces a child to new sports and skills, and provides time for them to practice and develop, with the opportunity to master their skills, in a safe environment. In addition to the long list of physical benefits associated with physical education, there are hidden benefits such as sporting values including: fair play, teamwork, support, respect, cooperation, empowerment, leadership, inclusion, and the ability to connect people and communities with the notion of sportspersonship.
The values and benefits of physical education and sport can be extended a lot further than two paragraphs. The significance of health, (both mentally and physically) teamwork, inclusion, as well as the transference of skills to academia, the workplace and the community, cannot be under estimated, neither can the ‘enjoyment’ be. In development documentation, government polices, and in this essay, the notion ‘sport’ generally refers to physical education in schools, personal exercise/fitness, traditional sports, and recreational activities. By using such a broad definition of ‘sport’, it encompasses activities suitable to women and girls of all ages, abilities and from all socio-cultural backgrounds.
Access to sport is fundamental in attaining the rights and freedoms set out in international human rights, yet for many in sub-Saharan Africa, access to ‘sport’ has barriers. It is important to gain an understanding of what the gender barriers are in order to develop possible solutions or develop acceptable alternatives.
The Barriers
An examination of gender, sexuality and the roles in sport that society expects, accentuates the stereotypical concepts of what is feminine and what is masculine. Stereotypically (though unique in different cultural settings) masculinity is having the qualities and appearances that have been traditionally linked with having muscles, strength, aggression, logic, leadership and competitiveness. In contrast, being feminine is about possessing the qualities and appearance that has been traditionally linked with being soft, gentle, passive, intuitive, responsive and cooperative. Sport has traditionally been associated with the concept of masculinity and it still embodies essential masculine traits; historically a sport was a way men measured their heterosexual male superiority against other men. The stereotyping of gender roles in sport is not just confined to the developing world. In the developed world it is predominantly women who encounter discrimination through gender stereotyping in sport, with respect to levels of media coverage, salary contracts and sponsorships (Huggins and Randell 2007). In contrast, successful male athletes become heroes and idols to many in the developed and the developing world. In Nigeria the French soccer star Thiery Henry, at the height of his career with Arsenal FC, was considered Igwe (Monarch) amongst his fandom. Again, in contrast, successful heterosexual female and gay athletes receive media coverage when risking disrupting social order with sensationalized stories that are considered to be against perceived stereotypical norms (Meier, 2005; Olaoluwa & Adejayan, 2010). In the developing world it continues to be women that encounter the majority of discrimination through gender stereotyping. The issues that they face include gaining access to sport, as well as challenging the existing cultural gender roles in their countries, and challenging the concepts of what is feminine and what is masculine (Huggins and Randell 2007). Women in the developing world that are seen to participate in sport are risking their ‘femininity’ and because of this they are risking their place within society (Saavedra, 2005).
Sport is a physical activity; if a woman wants to play sport she has to at least display some of the qualities that are traditionally and stereotypically associated with man and masculinity. In traditionally patriarchal sub-Saharan Africa children are introduced to their socially differentiated roles at a very early age. The son’s role is seen as the future heads of the household and the main source of income, whilst the daughter’s role is one of domestication and obedience (Kambarami, 2006; McDowell & Pringle, 1992). Daughters who participate in sports are therefore seen to be acting in unfeminine ways and are considered a disgrace by their families, as a daughter’s role is to behave like a lady in order to attract a husband and become a mother and homemaker (Meier, 2005). Time and energy is dedicated to fulfilling family obligations. In Zimbabwe, food, safety, shelter, family and health are the primary concerns of girls with little free time available for sport or leisure time. Girls concentrate on what they see their mothers doing and thereby they replicate the skills that have kept their mothers and grandmothers subjugated for generations. While boys have very few chores to do, which gives them the gift of time for outdoor activities, as they play with balls, run along roads, climb trees, jump over rivers and gullies, boys at an early age get to identify their sporting talents (Saavedra, 2005; Manyonganise, 2010).
Losing femininity, or the perceived loss of femininity by society, is a major barrier that prevents women and girls from getting involved in sport across developing countries. As a consequence of these barriers women’s sport in developing countries lacks female role models (Meier, 2005). Copying actions and behaviours, and by interacting socially with peers within the values and concepts of moral good sportspersonship, are some of the fundamental ways that young people learn. The observation of positive role models engaging in sport plays a crucial role in developing the skills and qualities of a good sportsperson that younger children need. Positive role models can be parents, mentors, teachers, coaches and peers, if their attitudes, behaviours, and the programme that they are promoting is a moral one. Unfortunately the lack of female athletes, teachers, coaches, leaders and decision makers in sports and in schools, is another barrier in achieving equity in sports and physical education (Saavedra, 2005).
The concept of safety and sport relates to the physical risk associated with participating in an activity, the standard of the equipment and the facilities that are available, the location of the facility and the logistics required to get to and from the event, and the verbal harassment and physical violence towards women and men or girls and boys (Saavedra, 2005). In Zimbabwe, like many other sub-Saharan countries, man owns the public spaces and travels there freely, where the women’s domain is in the privacy of the home. Women and girls have their physical mobility controlled by man, and as a consequence, society creates moral spaces that have been described as safe spaces for women such as the home, church, markets, clinics or in the tailors. Access to these spaces thus fulfills the concept of woman in her domestic role of homemaker and mother. Space is crucial for physical exercise, but gaining access to safe spaces can be difficult particularly as girls approach adolescence and are faced with even greater restrictions on their mobility which effects their participation. Regrettably for women, sport stadia, swimming pools, gymnasiums and training grounds all fall within the category of public places that are considered unsafe and immoral (Brady & Khan, 2002; Manyonganise, 2010; Ramtohul, 2010).
Harassment and violence can come from other athletes, teachers, coaches, family, spectators who are there to watch the game, or even passersby such as groups of street boys dependending on where the event is taking place. An example of violence combined with expected obligations of a girl’s role within a family in sub-Saharan Africa, identifies a 15-year-old girl describing her father’s opinion towards her starting to play sport, in this example football in Kenya with the Mathare Youth Sports Association (MYSA):
When I started playing for MYSA my father would say that there is
no football for girls, and he would beat me up. So whenever I wanted
to go and play, my mother would cover up for me by saying that she
had sent me somewhere. (Brady and Khan, 2002 p.14)
Challenging social expectations, traditional cultures and breaking sexual stereotypes will enviably come across resistance.
Why Physical Education and Sport are Different
Definitions of physical education and sport.
One of the problems faced in explaining differences between physical education and sport is that thee is no single accepted definition of either. There are a number of definitions, or at least descriptions, of physical education and sport.
With regard to physical education, the National Curriculum Physical Education Working Group (NCPEWG) stated that:
Physical education educates young people in and through the use and knowledge of the body and its movement. It:
One of the problems faced in explaining differences between physical education and sport is that thee is no single accepted definition of either. There are a number of definitions, or at least descriptions, of physical education and sport.
With regard to physical education, the National Curriculum Physical Education Working Group (NCPEWG) stated that:
Physical education educates young people in and through the use and knowledge of the body and its movement. It:
- Develops physical competence and enables pupils to engage in worthwhile physical activities.
- Promotes physical development and teaches pupils to value the benefits of participation in physical activity whilst at school and throughout life.
- Develops artistic and aesthetic understanding within and through movement.
- Helps to establish self-esteem through the development of physical confidence and helps pupils to cope with both success and failure in competitive and co-operative physical activities.
Physical education also contributes to:
- The development of problem-solving skills
- The development of inter-personal skills
- The forging of links between the school and the community, and across cultures.
Physical education aims to develop physical competence so that pupils are able to move efficiently, effectively and safely and understand what they are doing. It is essentially a way of learning through action, awareness and observation.
On the other hand, the council of Europe in its European Sports Charter (1992) stated that:
Sports means all forms of physical activity which, through casual or organized participation, aims at improving physical fitness and mental well-being, forming social relationships or obtaining results in competition at all levels.
To the School Sport Forum, sport covered:
- Competitive games and sports...
- Outdoor pursuits, in which participants seek to negotiate some particular 'terrain'...
- Aesthetic movement... e.g. dance, figure skating, forms of rhythmic gymnastics and recreational swimming;
- Conditioning activity... improving or maintaining physical working capacity and engendering subsequently a feeling of general well-being.
This broad interpretation allows for a range of interests to be acknowledged, and for many forms of participation to be encountered within the provision of 'sport'.
Despite similarities in, and possible overlap between, some definitions, many people have concluded that physical education and sport are not the same. Murdoch (1990) viewed physical education and sport as 'distinct phenomena'. Further, NCPEWG identified physical education as being unique and different to sport:
Sport covers a range of physical activities in which adults and young people may participate. Physical education on the other hand is a process of leaning, the context being mainly physical. The purpose of this process is to develop specific knowledge, skills and understanding and to promote physical competence. Different sporting activities can and do contribute to that learning process, and the learning enables participation in sport. The focus however is on the child and his or her development of physical competence, rather than on the activity.
This suggests ways in which physical education and sport are different of distinct and not synonymous...
Central differences between Physical Education & Sport
Physical education is essentially an educational process whereas the focus in sport is on the activity
The NCPEWG (1991) emphasized that, in physical education the focus is on the process of learning in a mainly physical context, whereas in sport greater focus is placed on the activity and the emphasis may be placed on the end product, i.e. the performance or outcome.
'In physical education the emphasis is on learning in a mainly physical context. The purpose of the learning is to develop specific knowledge, skills and understanding and to promote physical development and competence. The learning promote participation in sport' (National Curriculum Council (NNC) 1992).
On the other hand,
'Sport is the term applied to a range of physical activities where emphasis is on participation and competition. Different sporting activities can and do contribute to learning' (NNC, 1992).
Murdoch (1997) stressed that through participating in physical education it is important that pupils are equipped to 'continue to be engaged in the learning process even after hey have left school'. She emphasised that the process of learning through planning, performance and evaluating gives integrity to the learning of discrete activity areas and 'strengthens the uniqueness of the process to physical education'. Activities are selected for inclusion in a physical education program me for a particular purpose...
This difference between physical education and sport can be illustrated by an example. Whereas a gymnastics coach, for example, might simply be concerned with producing the correct pattern of movement for a particular vault, the physical education teacher might focus on assisting the pupil to engage in a process which involves planning their approach (for example, length, speed of run up, angle of approach), performing the action and evaluating the performance (establishing the feeling, repeating the movement exactly, varying the movement, adapting the movement through repositioning the hands and so on). The focus on the learning process may provide a knowledge of principles which asset the pupil in learning new skills.
This is linked to physical education commencing from the perspective of the child and dimensions of the child's physical learning whereas sport starts from the perspective of the activity that is to be learned. Talbot reminded us that in physical eduction 'the game is not the thing, the child is' (Talbot, 1987). Further, Lee stressed that 'while training and coaching may be concerned with developing performance, education is concerned with developing people' (Lee, 1986).
Physical education involves motor skill development and need not involve sporting activities.
A focus on the child requires careful consideration of childrens' needs at different stages in their development. During the early (pr5 or nursery) years, physical activity has a base in play and playfulness. Structured support for learning through physical education assists the child to develop from this base. During the nursery and primary phases of education, physical education should encompass the learning of fundamental motor skills to form the foundation for participation in a range of physical activities. The primary years are important for helping children to gain mastery of their own bodies. Physical education is concerned with motor skill development and not just learning particular sports. Thus, the focus in physical education for very young pupils - nursery - KS1 - should not be on competing, which is necessarily involved in sports context, as this may be to advanced for their stage of cognitive development. The foundation provided at this stage can be the basis for 'more formal phases of participation in the activities of physical education and sport, moving from simple to complex versions' (Murdoch, 1990). Activities incorporated into physical education at later stages may not necessarily be sports.
Physical education is a concept broader than sport
Physical education is a concept broader than sport. Physical education encompasses sport but also embraces other physical activities which may or may not be sport, depending on reasons for participation, e.g. outdoor and adventurous activities (OAA). These activities are, or may not be, conceptually linked to competition which is inherent in sports. There are aspects of OAA that usefully form part of the learning process to enable the aims of physical education to be fulfilled, such as planning and taking part in an expedition. However, these do not constitute involvement in sport or preparation for such involvement. Thus, there is no inherent necessity that all forms of physical education should foster and promote the kind of competitive behavior which is essential to sport.
In physical education, sports should be selected for inclusion in the curriculum for the potential they have for the learning that is to take place and not vice versa. If the focus in physical education were only on sport there could be a narrow focus to the curriculum.
Further, there are a number of aims for physical education which can be achieved through participation in activities other than sports. One of the aims of physical education can be the aspirations for as many pupils as possible to integrate physical activity as part of their lifestyle. Some pupils may not choose to integrate sport into their lifestyle, but may choose other forms of physical activity.
Tinning identified a danger of using sport education in physical education and highlighted the need to de-emphasize the 'educational purpose of physical education' (Tinning, 1995). He considered that the work of physical education professionals would be
better facilitated by reaffirming that sport is merely one medium (in physical activity) for the development of physically educated citizens. It should not be the central focus of physical education in schools. To allow physical education to be distilled to sport... is to sell our subject short. Certainly sport should be part of a physical education curriculum... but we must remember that sport is not the most reinforcing movement form for countless individuals (Tinning, 1995).
Physical education should benefit every pupil in the group regardless of ability and enthusiasm for the subject; therefore an emphasis on sport and with it an emphasis on competition and competitive success (e.g. at inter-house level on a traditional sports day or at inter-school level) can result in finite resources being used for a few elite performers rather than being available to encourage participation in physical activity for all. 'If one spends a disproportionate amount of time on just a few pupils (in physical education or elsewhere) then it is only to be expected that a higher level of performance will be achieved' (Leaman, 1988). Many would regard such an allocation of resources as basically unfair and to be avoided in a school. Thus, 'instead of the expense of transporting a small minority of students to distant corners of the country, a lunchtime and after-school activity program me could be developed that appeals to the full spectrum of youngsters' interests (Fox, 1996).
Most would agree, however, that the pursuit of excellence is important for the able performer. Physical education teachers have a role in identifying potential and enabling pupils to develop their potential, but whose role is it to develop excellence? To what degree should excellence be a focus for schools if it is at the expense of less assistance, effort, time and resources being given to the less able to help them to achieve their potential? What role should physical education and physical education staff play in the development of excellence? As Fox (1996) contended:
The school is not wholly responsible; as many children will take part in swimming, gymnastics, dance and other sports activities... Increasingly also, youngsters play sport through the club system on weekends and older adolescents are beginning to enroll in formal exercise classes and take membership at fitness clubs. An important role for schools is to make links and alliances with these alternative agencies.
Thus, identification of potential may occur in physical education time, but development of that potential to achieve excellence can occur in extra-curricular time or through pupils being referred to opportunities at local sports clubs or other types of community provision. Developing potential is an integral part of the sports development continuum (ESC, 1997).
Notes taken from Physical education and sport by Susan Capal
More Formalised Assessment can be Time-Consuming and Burdensome and Detract from Valuable Learning Time
Assessment has always been an integral part of good teaching in physical education. Effective physical education teachers identify clear learning objectives and gather evidence on the extent to which those learning objectives are achieved. Such evidence provides a basis for feedback. Feedback can be given to pupils so that sound practice can be reinforced and mistakes corrected. It also provides information to the teacher on whether learning objectives are set at an appropriate level of difficulty and provides a basis from which appropriate adjustments to the challenging nature of learning materials can be made.
Acknowledging that assessment should be integral to effective teaching and learning in educational context, including physical education, nevertheless leaves open the question of how assessment should be conducted. Possible modes of assessment have been identified by Rowntree (1977) to include: formal vs. informal modes, formative vs. summative modes; continuous vs. terminal (final) modes; course work examination modes; internal vs. external modes; convergent vs. divergent modes; and ideographic vs nomothetic modes.
...
Formal vs. Informal modes of assessment where 'Informal assessment can be defined as 'assessment conducted while pupils are carrying on normal classroom (physical education) activities' while 'formal assessment' can be defined as 'assessment conducted in situations solely for that purpose... usually using well-validated tests or other instruments'.
In physical education, informal assessment is based on the continual flow of evidence within each class lesson and generally rilles on ongoing, observational assessment and verbal interaction. It provides information on how successful or otherwise the planned tasks, practices and teaching approaches have been in promoting pupils' learning. Formal assessment. on the other hand, tend to involve close observations and simultaneous recording of a child's achievement during time which is specifically set aside for making such judgement (usually the final lesson of a unit).
...
Does formal assessment better place the teacher to reach a more accurate judgement?
Is formal assessment stimulating and motivating to pupils?
Linked with the time-consuming nature of some formal assessment practices is the additional burden that formal assessment practices may place on teaching staff. Penny and Harris found that 'for many heads of physical education, reducing assessment requirements and/or administrative demands associated with implementation of National Curriculum in physical education was clearly the preferred course of action in any revision process' (Penney & Harris, 1998).
Questions for reflection
1. If assessment is integral to everyday teaching, how can evidence be collected to ensure that there are accurate judgments of all pupils?
2. What should be the balance between formal and informal assessment in physical education and why?
3. Do you gather evidence of assessment against all the aims and objectives stated in your physical education curriculum? If not, which aims and objectives do you not gather evidence for, and why and how could you gather this evidence?
4. How can the outcomes of assessment be recorded efficiently by providing appropriate information to enable you to make accurate reports on pupils' progress?
5. How can your assessment, recording and reporting practice be improved?
Notes taken from a paper by Piotrowski & Capel (2000)
Acknowledging that assessment should be integral to effective teaching and learning in educational context, including physical education, nevertheless leaves open the question of how assessment should be conducted. Possible modes of assessment have been identified by Rowntree (1977) to include: formal vs. informal modes, formative vs. summative modes; continuous vs. terminal (final) modes; course work examination modes; internal vs. external modes; convergent vs. divergent modes; and ideographic vs nomothetic modes.
...
Formal vs. Informal modes of assessment where 'Informal assessment can be defined as 'assessment conducted while pupils are carrying on normal classroom (physical education) activities' while 'formal assessment' can be defined as 'assessment conducted in situations solely for that purpose... usually using well-validated tests or other instruments'.
In physical education, informal assessment is based on the continual flow of evidence within each class lesson and generally rilles on ongoing, observational assessment and verbal interaction. It provides information on how successful or otherwise the planned tasks, practices and teaching approaches have been in promoting pupils' learning. Formal assessment. on the other hand, tend to involve close observations and simultaneous recording of a child's achievement during time which is specifically set aside for making such judgement (usually the final lesson of a unit).
...
Does formal assessment better place the teacher to reach a more accurate judgement?
Is formal assessment stimulating and motivating to pupils?
More Formalised Assessment can be Time-Consuming and Burdensome and Detract from Valuable Learning Time
One of the problems associated with increasing emphasis on formal assessment in physical education concerns the amount of time that might be taken up by such practices. This was noted by Satterly. 'It is not at all clear what proportion of a school year is taken up by assessment although it is salutary to remember that every minute spent in formal assessment is time taken from actual teaching (Satterly, 1981). This point was also acknowledged by Robinson (1996) who noted that with formal methods of assessment such assessing at the end of each unit of work, valuable teaching and learning time may be lost. She calculated that using such methods could result in one in every six or seven lessons being spent assessing (testing) rather than teaching physical education. Robinson challenged those adopting formal assessment practices of this nature to identify what such end of unit assessment tell teachers and pupils that they do not know already. Informal assessment, on the other hand, which takes place on an ongoing basis is a class context, does not detract from learning and practice time.Linked with the time-consuming nature of some formal assessment practices is the additional burden that formal assessment practices may place on teaching staff. Penny and Harris found that 'for many heads of physical education, reducing assessment requirements and/or administrative demands associated with implementation of National Curriculum in physical education was clearly the preferred course of action in any revision process' (Penney & Harris, 1998).
Questions for reflection
1. If assessment is integral to everyday teaching, how can evidence be collected to ensure that there are accurate judgments of all pupils?
2. What should be the balance between formal and informal assessment in physical education and why?
3. Do you gather evidence of assessment against all the aims and objectives stated in your physical education curriculum? If not, which aims and objectives do you not gather evidence for, and why and how could you gather this evidence?
4. How can the outcomes of assessment be recorded efficiently by providing appropriate information to enable you to make accurate reports on pupils' progress?
5. How can your assessment, recording and reporting practice be improved?
Notes taken from a paper by Piotrowski & Capel (2000)
The Physical Education Curriculum - Thoughts for Debate on the Aims of a Physical Education Department.
One of the long-standing debates in physical education is about whether the subject has value in its own right, or is best seen as a useful vehicle through which desirable attributes can be acquired, e.g. personal qualities such as perseverance, social skills such as co-operation and cognitive skills such a problem solving. According to Whitehead (2000) the debate is sometime referred to as the means/end issue. Is the subject an end in itself or a means to other ends?
If physical education is advocated worthwhile in its own right the case has to be made for the value of pupils participating in and becoming skillful at a range of physical activities. The focus being on promoting physical development and enhancing physical competence. The recognition of the value of becoming a skillful participant may be easier to promote in respect of some activities than others. Activities that have a high profile nationally (or even globally) and can readily be continued into adult life, e.g. football over gymnastics and activities that relate to personal survival such as swimming are more strongly supported than dance for example. The more likely the support for some activities than others, however, has a ring of using the subject for extrinsic ends which, in the cases cited above, maybe the production of winning national teams and the prevention of accidental death.
What has to be formulated is a case for the value of becoming physically skilled per se. This case will have to take the brave stance of reminding the skeptic that we have physical capacities and potential and that these are fundamental to human existence and integral to human nature. Supporters would need to argue that these attributes and not inferior in the sense that the body/mind split has tended to label the body as of lesser importance. If education is about nurturing all aspects of human potential, the physical has an indisputable place in the enterprise.
If physical education is advocated as a means to achieving other ends, such as personal and social development, teachers of this subject have to face the challenge that other areas of the curriculum can also realize the same ends. If physical education does not bring anything unique to the curriculum and is only contributing to the broad aims of education, it could be argued that it is not time well spent and be consigned to the extra-curricular programme.
There are at least two ways to answer this point. 1) is that the nature of physical education lends itself very clearly to pupils acquiring certain personal and social skills e.g. situations in physical education unequivocally demand team work, challenge pupils to be self-reliant and require pupils to use their imagination. Pupils responses are immediately visible and achievement of any of the above can easily be observed and assessed. 2) is to argue that pupils need a range of contexts in which to acquire attributes such as personal and social skills. Some pupils master these skills more readily in one context than in another. It is undeniable that physical education provides a unique context and many cite examples of certain pupils making signifiant progress as a result of successful engagement in physical education.
...
Among those who advocate physical education as of value in its own right, one of two broad aims may be identified as paramount. One aim could be to produce athletes of the highest standard; the other could be to give all pupils the opportunity to improve their movement skills.
Some physical education teachers see their task as enabling those pupils with the most potential in the physical domain to excel. The justification is that every child has particular skills and abilities and it is the responsibility of every teacher to identify and nurture pupils who demonstrate this potential in their subject. Education is about fulfilling potential and physical education teachers should direct their energies toward those pupils for whom physical education is their area of achievement. It is certainly the case that for some young people physical education is the only subject in which they excel and it is through this subject that they develop their self-confidence and self-esteem. An advocate of this view would have to counter the argument that s/he is neglecting a large proportion of the pupils: those not destined to be highly skillful performers. Indeed, it could be claimed that this majority of pupils are those who need the skilled guidance of the teacher more than the naturally gifted pupils. A case could also be made that able athletes can be more than adequately catered for in extracurricular time in local or regional clubs and teams. An elitist approach such as this may also result in a curriculum that is comprised predominately of competitive team games and a situation that allows some pupils to specialize almost exclusively in a limited number of activities. Advocates of this more elitist approach would argue that a focus on high standards and the elite provides inspirational role models for other pupils, and winning school teams can bring prestige to the school and a sense of pride to all in the school community.
Those teachers who advocate entitlement for all would be concerned that every pupil reaches as least a base line level of physical skill through involvement in a wide range of activities. This base line level has been described as 'physical literacy'. Physical literacy endows pupils with a confidence in their ability in physical activity, an understanding of the nature of different physical activities and the knowledge that experience of physical activity is satisfying and rewarding. A physically literate individual is likely to continue to participate in physical activity after leaving school and will not be apprehensive to trying his or her hand at new activities. Critics of this view could argue that physical literacy is too nebulous a concept to serve as an ultimate aim and that the result would be a leveling down of achievement. Furthermore they could point out that many people live fulfilled lives without taking part in any physical activity. They could take the stand that teachers should devote their time and experience to working with able and motivated pupils. Those supporting an inclusive approach would argue that their aim is for every pupil to reach his or her potential, not for all to reach line level of performance.
...
Those who see the principal value of physical education in the process would probably share a number of beliefs with those who support an approach aligned to physical education as a 'means to an end', with the experiences of learning in physical education as being the vehicle to achieve desirable general educational aims. Process advocates could claim that the quality of the product is entirely dependent on the quality of the process and that all learning is crucially about making sense of experience. Though working on challenges set in the subject pupils learn to, co-operate, solve problems, create and persevere. Advocates of the process value of physical education would also favor inclusivity in that the aim would be for all pupils to have equal opportunity to have experiences from which they can learn. This learning would include emphasis on the experience of taking part in physical activities. Time would be taken to reflect on all aspects of the processes of planning movement, performance and re-planning in the light of the experience. It would also include an appreciation of personal potential and the setting of realistic personal goals.
It is not difficult to anticipate the criticisms that could be leveled at this aim of learning through the process of engagement in physical education. Those would include claims that the aims were too vague. Opponents could argue that aims such as these would be impossible to control or measure and that every child would be learning something different through and experience. Opponents could also question the disregard for the quality of the outcomes and doubt wether pupils would feel any sense of achievement if no value was placed on the standard of their performance.
For the 'product advocates' the aim could be high quality performance. As far as possible the quality would be measurable or clearly judged against predetermined criteria. They would argue that success breeds success and that pupils thrive on the knowledge of how well they are preforming. Process advocates could caution against very mechanistic methods of assessment and the demoralising effect of never achieving as well as the most able. A defense for product advocates would be to argue that their approach is one where pupils are competing against themselves, working to improve personal performance, not comparing themselves to others.
Notes taken from a paper by Whitehead (2000)
If physical education is advocated worthwhile in its own right the case has to be made for the value of pupils participating in and becoming skillful at a range of physical activities. The focus being on promoting physical development and enhancing physical competence. The recognition of the value of becoming a skillful participant may be easier to promote in respect of some activities than others. Activities that have a high profile nationally (or even globally) and can readily be continued into adult life, e.g. football over gymnastics and activities that relate to personal survival such as swimming are more strongly supported than dance for example. The more likely the support for some activities than others, however, has a ring of using the subject for extrinsic ends which, in the cases cited above, maybe the production of winning national teams and the prevention of accidental death.
What has to be formulated is a case for the value of becoming physically skilled per se. This case will have to take the brave stance of reminding the skeptic that we have physical capacities and potential and that these are fundamental to human existence and integral to human nature. Supporters would need to argue that these attributes and not inferior in the sense that the body/mind split has tended to label the body as of lesser importance. If education is about nurturing all aspects of human potential, the physical has an indisputable place in the enterprise.
If physical education is advocated as a means to achieving other ends, such as personal and social development, teachers of this subject have to face the challenge that other areas of the curriculum can also realize the same ends. If physical education does not bring anything unique to the curriculum and is only contributing to the broad aims of education, it could be argued that it is not time well spent and be consigned to the extra-curricular programme.
There are at least two ways to answer this point. 1) is that the nature of physical education lends itself very clearly to pupils acquiring certain personal and social skills e.g. situations in physical education unequivocally demand team work, challenge pupils to be self-reliant and require pupils to use their imagination. Pupils responses are immediately visible and achievement of any of the above can easily be observed and assessed. 2) is to argue that pupils need a range of contexts in which to acquire attributes such as personal and social skills. Some pupils master these skills more readily in one context than in another. It is undeniable that physical education provides a unique context and many cite examples of certain pupils making signifiant progress as a result of successful engagement in physical education.
...
Among those who advocate physical education as of value in its own right, one of two broad aims may be identified as paramount. One aim could be to produce athletes of the highest standard; the other could be to give all pupils the opportunity to improve their movement skills.
Some physical education teachers see their task as enabling those pupils with the most potential in the physical domain to excel. The justification is that every child has particular skills and abilities and it is the responsibility of every teacher to identify and nurture pupils who demonstrate this potential in their subject. Education is about fulfilling potential and physical education teachers should direct their energies toward those pupils for whom physical education is their area of achievement. It is certainly the case that for some young people physical education is the only subject in which they excel and it is through this subject that they develop their self-confidence and self-esteem. An advocate of this view would have to counter the argument that s/he is neglecting a large proportion of the pupils: those not destined to be highly skillful performers. Indeed, it could be claimed that this majority of pupils are those who need the skilled guidance of the teacher more than the naturally gifted pupils. A case could also be made that able athletes can be more than adequately catered for in extracurricular time in local or regional clubs and teams. An elitist approach such as this may also result in a curriculum that is comprised predominately of competitive team games and a situation that allows some pupils to specialize almost exclusively in a limited number of activities. Advocates of this more elitist approach would argue that a focus on high standards and the elite provides inspirational role models for other pupils, and winning school teams can bring prestige to the school and a sense of pride to all in the school community.
Those teachers who advocate entitlement for all would be concerned that every pupil reaches as least a base line level of physical skill through involvement in a wide range of activities. This base line level has been described as 'physical literacy'. Physical literacy endows pupils with a confidence in their ability in physical activity, an understanding of the nature of different physical activities and the knowledge that experience of physical activity is satisfying and rewarding. A physically literate individual is likely to continue to participate in physical activity after leaving school and will not be apprehensive to trying his or her hand at new activities. Critics of this view could argue that physical literacy is too nebulous a concept to serve as an ultimate aim and that the result would be a leveling down of achievement. Furthermore they could point out that many people live fulfilled lives without taking part in any physical activity. They could take the stand that teachers should devote their time and experience to working with able and motivated pupils. Those supporting an inclusive approach would argue that their aim is for every pupil to reach his or her potential, not for all to reach line level of performance.
...
Those who see the principal value of physical education in the process would probably share a number of beliefs with those who support an approach aligned to physical education as a 'means to an end', with the experiences of learning in physical education as being the vehicle to achieve desirable general educational aims. Process advocates could claim that the quality of the product is entirely dependent on the quality of the process and that all learning is crucially about making sense of experience. Though working on challenges set in the subject pupils learn to, co-operate, solve problems, create and persevere. Advocates of the process value of physical education would also favor inclusivity in that the aim would be for all pupils to have equal opportunity to have experiences from which they can learn. This learning would include emphasis on the experience of taking part in physical activities. Time would be taken to reflect on all aspects of the processes of planning movement, performance and re-planning in the light of the experience. It would also include an appreciation of personal potential and the setting of realistic personal goals.
It is not difficult to anticipate the criticisms that could be leveled at this aim of learning through the process of engagement in physical education. Those would include claims that the aims were too vague. Opponents could argue that aims such as these would be impossible to control or measure and that every child would be learning something different through and experience. Opponents could also question the disregard for the quality of the outcomes and doubt wether pupils would feel any sense of achievement if no value was placed on the standard of their performance.
For the 'product advocates' the aim could be high quality performance. As far as possible the quality would be measurable or clearly judged against predetermined criteria. They would argue that success breeds success and that pupils thrive on the knowledge of how well they are preforming. Process advocates could caution against very mechanistic methods of assessment and the demoralising effect of never achieving as well as the most able. A defense for product advocates would be to argue that their approach is one where pupils are competing against themselves, working to improve personal performance, not comparing themselves to others.
Notes taken from a paper by Whitehead (2000)
Cultural Politics and Education
Another book recommendation: Cultural politics and education by M. Apple
Michael Apple offers a powerful analysis of current debates and a compelling indictment of rightist proposals for change. Apple presents the causes and effects of further integrating schools into the corporate agenda, as well as current calls for a national curriculum and national testing, privatization and voucher plans, and fundamentalist religious pressures to censor textbooks. He demonstrates who will be the winners and losers culturally and economically as the conservative restoration gains in strength, bringing with it an even greater restratification of knowledge and students in terms of race, class, and gender.
Abstract: As the conservative restoration movement gains power in the educational arena, public schooling itself has come under attack. This book analyzes current educational debates and critiques the rightist proposals for change. Chapter 1 serves as an introduction to cultural politics and education, and addresses hegemonic cultures. Chapter 2 examines the most significant proposals for educational "reform" that have come from the neoliberal and neoconservative alliance. The chapter's major focus is on proposals for a national curriculum and a program of national testing. It argues that one of the perverse effects of a national curriculum will be to legitimize inequality. Chapter 3 analyzes conservative ideological positions and how they threaten schools. However, the chapter also demonstrates how the bureaucratic structures and responses of schools sometimes actually create the conditions under which right-wing movements grow and thrive. It incorporates new-Gramscian, postmodern, and poststructural traditions. The fourth chapter examines the social construction of dropping out as a problem and situates it within the real economy. It presents students' accounts of their educational experiences and encounters with the realities of the free-market economy. Chapter 5 presents a conclusion to the work.
Michael Apple offers a powerful analysis of current debates and a compelling indictment of rightist proposals for change. Apple presents the causes and effects of further integrating schools into the corporate agenda, as well as current calls for a national curriculum and national testing, privatization and voucher plans, and fundamentalist religious pressures to censor textbooks. He demonstrates who will be the winners and losers culturally and economically as the conservative restoration gains in strength, bringing with it an even greater restratification of knowledge and students in terms of race, class, and gender.
Abstract: As the conservative restoration movement gains power in the educational arena, public schooling itself has come under attack. This book analyzes current educational debates and critiques the rightist proposals for change. Chapter 1 serves as an introduction to cultural politics and education, and addresses hegemonic cultures. Chapter 2 examines the most significant proposals for educational "reform" that have come from the neoliberal and neoconservative alliance. The chapter's major focus is on proposals for a national curriculum and a program of national testing. It argues that one of the perverse effects of a national curriculum will be to legitimize inequality. Chapter 3 analyzes conservative ideological positions and how they threaten schools. However, the chapter also demonstrates how the bureaucratic structures and responses of schools sometimes actually create the conditions under which right-wing movements grow and thrive. It incorporates new-Gramscian, postmodern, and poststructural traditions. The fourth chapter examines the social construction of dropping out as a problem and situates it within the real economy. It presents students' accounts of their educational experiences and encounters with the realities of the free-market economy. Chapter 5 presents a conclusion to the work.
The Unintended Consequences of High-Stakes Testing
A Recommended Read: The Unintended Consequences of High-Stakes Testing by Jones, Jones and Hargrove
To better understand how high-stakes accountability has influenced teaching and learning, this book takes an in-depth look at the myriad consequences that high-stakes tests hold for students, teachers, administrators, and the public. By focusing on these tests and spending large amounts of time on test preparation and driving teachers to teach low-level, rote memorization, schools are essentially wiping out non-tested subjects such as science, social studies, physical education, and the arts. Although testing is promoted as a strategy for improving education for all, research shows that testing has differential effects on students with special needs, minority students, students living in poverty, and those for whom English is a second language. The Unintended Consequences of High Stakes Testing unpacks the assumptions and philosophical foundations on which testing policies are based. The authors' arguments are grounded in extensive interviews and research. Through an examination of research, these authors show that high-stakes testing promotes students' dependence on extrinsic motivation at the cost of intrinsic motivation and the associated love of learning-which has tangible impacts on their education and lives.
Features: Examines how high stakes testing from the perspectives of teachers, students, and adminstrators. Considers how testing impacts the curriculum including tested subjects such as reading, writing, and mathematics as well as non-tested subjects such as science, social studies, physical education, and the arts. -Documents how teachers and administrators engage in test preparation and discusses ethical and unethical test preparation practices. -Reviews the evolution of testing through history and how it mpacts the curriculum. -Examines the differential effects of testing on students with special needs, minority students, students living in poverty, and those for whom English is a second language.
To better understand how high-stakes accountability has influenced teaching and learning, this book takes an in-depth look at the myriad consequences that high-stakes tests hold for students, teachers, administrators, and the public. By focusing on these tests and spending large amounts of time on test preparation and driving teachers to teach low-level, rote memorization, schools are essentially wiping out non-tested subjects such as science, social studies, physical education, and the arts. Although testing is promoted as a strategy for improving education for all, research shows that testing has differential effects on students with special needs, minority students, students living in poverty, and those for whom English is a second language. The Unintended Consequences of High Stakes Testing unpacks the assumptions and philosophical foundations on which testing policies are based. The authors' arguments are grounded in extensive interviews and research. Through an examination of research, these authors show that high-stakes testing promotes students' dependence on extrinsic motivation at the cost of intrinsic motivation and the associated love of learning-which has tangible impacts on their education and lives.
Features: Examines how high stakes testing from the perspectives of teachers, students, and adminstrators. Considers how testing impacts the curriculum including tested subjects such as reading, writing, and mathematics as well as non-tested subjects such as science, social studies, physical education, and the arts. -Documents how teachers and administrators engage in test preparation and discusses ethical and unethical test preparation practices. -Reviews the evolution of testing through history and how it mpacts the curriculum. -Examines the differential effects of testing on students with special needs, minority students, students living in poverty, and those for whom English is a second language.
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