Here are the complete steps for the beginning stages of Kath Murdoch's Inquiry Cycle.
The Concept is 'Team Sports', and we are starting the cycle with a 5-a-side Football unit.
The Final Boards - Grade 5B & 5E
and Grade 4B & 4E
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ISD Hawks 2010 - 2011.mp4
Great memories of my time in Dhaka at ISD.
Time flies as most of the students have now graduated and have moved onto university.
Time flies as most of the students have now graduated and have moved onto university.
Gender inequality in sport in sub-Saharan Africa - Challenging gender norms as a possible solution - by Terence Weston (MA)
Extracts from my paper on Gender inequality in sport and physical education in sub-Saharan Africa.
Below are the Introduction and chapters on Sport and Physical Education as a Fundamental Right for Everyone and the Barriers that are stopping women and girls from participating in sport within developing countries.
This was my first essay for my MA in International Education and Development. If you would like to read the full article please let me know.
In 1978 the United Nations Educational Scientific and Cultural Organization in Paris drew-up an international charter for physical education and sport that stated the physical education and sport is a fundamental right for everyone:
One of the fundamental driving forces behind the UN charter is the overwhelming evidence that regular physical activity and sport are strongly related to ‘good’ health. It has been well documented that the benefits of regular physical activity helps improve cardiovascular health, helps reduce the risk of diabetes, strengthens the bones to reduce the risk of osteoporosis, reduces the risk of obesity and helps fight some forms of cancer (Bruckner & Brown, 2005). Physical activity in regards to mental health alleviates symptoms of mild-to-moderate depression, reduces anxiety and stress, and brings mental health benefits such as improved self-confidence and self concept (Taylor et al, 1985).
Physical education in schools has proven to be crucial when it comes to developing the child’s capacity and willingness to move their bodies with meaning and expression. It helps them to develop poise, spatial awareness, coordination, and it develops their gross and fine motor skills. Physical education introduces a child to new sports and skills, and provides time for them to practice and develop, with the opportunity to master their skills, in a safe environment. In addition to the long list of physical benefits associated with physical education, there are hidden benefits such as sporting values including: fair play, teamwork, support, respect, cooperation, empowerment, leadership, inclusion, and the ability to connect people and communities with the notion of sportspersonship.
The values and benefits of physical education and sport can be extended a lot further than two paragraphs. The significance of health, (both mentally and physically) teamwork, inclusion, as well as the transference of skills to academia, the workplace and the community, cannot be under estimated, neither can the ‘enjoyment’ be. In development documentation, government polices, and in this essay, the notion ‘sport’ generally refers to physical education in schools, personal exercise/fitness, traditional sports, and recreational activities. By using such a broad definition of ‘sport’, it encompasses activities suitable to women and girls of all ages, abilities and from all socio-cultural backgrounds.
Access to sport is fundamental in attaining the rights and freedoms set out in international human rights, yet for many in sub-Saharan Africa, access to ‘sport’ has barriers. It is important to gain an understanding of what the gender barriers are in order to develop possible solutions or develop acceptable alternatives.
Martha Saavedra (2005) identifies three overarching categories that are the barriers stopping women and girls from participating in sport within developing countries: gender and sexuality, competing obligations and safety.
An examination of gender, sexuality and the roles in sport that society expects, accentuates the stereotypical concepts of what is feminine and what is masculine. Stereotypically (though unique in different cultural settings) masculinity is having the qualities and appearances that have been traditionally linked with having muscles, strength, aggression, logic, leadership and competitiveness. In contrast, being feminine is about possessing the qualities and appearance that has been traditionally linked with being soft, gentle, passive, intuitive, responsive and cooperative. Sport has traditionally been associated with the concept of masculinity and it still embodies essential masculine traits; historically a sport was a way men measured their heterosexual male superiority against other men. The stereotyping of gender roles in sport is not just confined to the developing world. In the developed world it is predominantly women who encounter discrimination through gender stereotyping in sport, with respect to levels of media coverage, salary contracts and sponsorships (Huggins and Randell 2007). In contrast, successful male athletes become heroes and idols to many in the developed and the developing world. In Nigeria the French soccer star Thiery Henry, at the height of his career with Arsenal FC, was considered Igwe (Monarch) amongst his fandom. Again, in contrast, successful heterosexual female and gay athletes receive media coverage when risking disrupting social order with sensationalized stories that are considered to be against perceived stereotypical norms (Meier, 2005; Olaoluwa & Adejayan, 2010). In the developing world it continues to be women that encounter the majority of discrimination through gender stereotyping. The issues that they face include gaining access to sport, as well as challenging the existing cultural gender roles in their countries, and challenging the concepts of what is feminine and what is masculine (Huggins and Randell 2007). Women in the developing world that are seen to participate in sport are risking their ‘femininity’ and because of this they are risking their place within society (Saavedra, 2005).
Sport is a physical activity; if a woman wants to play sport she has to at least display some of the qualities that are traditionally and stereotypically associated with man and masculinity. In traditionally patriarchal sub-Saharan Africa children are introduced to their socially differentiated roles at a very early age. The son’s role is seen as the future heads of the household and the main source of income, whilst the daughter’s role is one of domestication and obedience (Kambarami, 2006; McDowell & Pringle, 1992). Daughters who participate in sports are therefore seen to be acting in unfeminine ways and are considered a disgrace by their families, as a daughter’s role is to behave like a lady in order to attract a husband and become a mother and homemaker (Meier, 2005). Time and energy is dedicated to fulfilling family obligations. In Zimbabwe, food, safety, shelter, family and health are the primary concerns of girls with little free time available for sport or leisure time. Girls concentrate on what they see their mothers doing and thereby they replicate the skills that have kept their mothers and grandmothers subjugated for generations. While boys have very few chores to do, which gives them the gift of time for outdoor activities, as they play with balls, run along roads, climb trees, jump over rivers and gullies, boys at an early age get to identify their sporting talents (Saavedra, 2005; Manyonganise, 2010).
Losing femininity, or the perceived loss of femininity by society, is a major barrier that prevents women and girls from getting involved in sport across developing countries. As a consequence of these barriers women’s sport in developing countries lacks female role models (Meier, 2005). Copying actions and behaviours, and by interacting socially with peers within the values and concepts of moral good sportspersonship, are some of the fundamental ways that young people learn. The observation of positive role models engaging in sport plays a crucial role in developing the skills and qualities of a good sportsperson that younger children need. Positive role models can be parents, mentors, teachers, coaches and peers, if their attitudes, behaviours, and the programme that they are promoting is a moral one. Unfortunately the lack of female athletes, teachers, coaches, leaders and decision makers in sports and in schools, is another barrier in achieving equity in sports and physical education (Saavedra, 2005).
The concept of safety and sport relates to the physical risk associated with participating in an activity, the standard of the equipment and the facilities that are available, the location of the facility and the logistics required to get to and from the event, and the verbal harassment and physical violence towards women and men or girls and boys (Saavedra, 2005). In Zimbabwe, like many other sub-Saharan countries, man owns the public spaces and travels there freely, where the women’s domain is in the privacy of the home. Women and girls have their physical mobility controlled by man, and as a consequence, society creates moral spaces that have been described as safe spaces for women such as the home, church, markets, clinics or in the tailors. Access to these spaces thus fulfills the concept of woman in her domestic role of homemaker and mother. Space is crucial for physical exercise, but gaining access to safe spaces can be difficult particularly as girls approach adolescence and are faced with even greater restrictions on their mobility which effects their participation. Regrettably for women, sport stadia, swimming pools, gymnasiums and training grounds all fall within the category of public places that are considered unsafe and immoral (Brady & Khan, 2002; Manyonganise, 2010; Ramtohul, 2010).
Harassment and violence can come from other athletes, teachers, coaches, family, spectators who are there to watch the game, or even passersby such as groups of street boys dependending on where the event is taking place. An example of violence combined with expected obligations of a girl’s role within a family in sub-Saharan Africa, identifies a 15-year-old girl describing her father’s opinion towards her starting to play sport, in this example football in Kenya with the Mathare Youth Sports Association (MYSA):
Challenging social expectations, traditional cultures and breaking sexual stereotypes will enviably come across resistance.
Below are the Introduction and chapters on Sport and Physical Education as a Fundamental Right for Everyone and the Barriers that are stopping women and girls from participating in sport within developing countries.
This was my first essay for my MA in International Education and Development. If you would like to read the full article please let me know.
Gender inequality in sport in sub-Saharan Africa
Challenging gender norms as a possible solution
by Terence Weston
by Terence Weston
Introduction
The essay focuses on “gender” in terms of development and explores why the biggest issue in sport in development is unequal access for women and girls. Sport and physical education have so many proven benefits for women and men and yet access to involvement in sport is limited for so many women. This essay explores the possible barriers that are preventing women in sub-Saharan African from accessing sport. The barriers faced by women are discussed by using the overarching themes identified by Martha Saavedra (2005): gender and sexuality, competing obligations and safety. The essay identifies the initiatives that have been introduced in Kenya, including recommendations being made both at a macro and micro level, aimed at challenging social norms, and reducing gender inequality within sport in sub-Saharan Africa. Finally the essay looks at what the international community has done, and continues to do, to break down the barriers and change the inequity for women and girls in sport, with reference to the Millennium Development Goals (MDGs).
Sport and Physical Education – A Fundamental Right for Everyone
1.1 Every human being has a fundamental right of access to physical
education and sport, which are essential for the full development of
his personality. The freedom to develop physical, intellectual and
moral powers through physical education and sport must be
guaranteed both within the educational system and in other aspects of
social life. (UNESCO, 1978, p.32)
Physical education in schools has proven to be crucial when it comes to developing the child’s capacity and willingness to move their bodies with meaning and expression. It helps them to develop poise, spatial awareness, coordination, and it develops their gross and fine motor skills. Physical education introduces a child to new sports and skills, and provides time for them to practice and develop, with the opportunity to master their skills, in a safe environment. In addition to the long list of physical benefits associated with physical education, there are hidden benefits such as sporting values including: fair play, teamwork, support, respect, cooperation, empowerment, leadership, inclusion, and the ability to connect people and communities with the notion of sportspersonship.
The values and benefits of physical education and sport can be extended a lot further than two paragraphs. The significance of health, (both mentally and physically) teamwork, inclusion, as well as the transference of skills to academia, the workplace and the community, cannot be under estimated, neither can the ‘enjoyment’ be. In development documentation, government polices, and in this essay, the notion ‘sport’ generally refers to physical education in schools, personal exercise/fitness, traditional sports, and recreational activities. By using such a broad definition of ‘sport’, it encompasses activities suitable to women and girls of all ages, abilities and from all socio-cultural backgrounds.
Access to sport is fundamental in attaining the rights and freedoms set out in international human rights, yet for many in sub-Saharan Africa, access to ‘sport’ has barriers. It is important to gain an understanding of what the gender barriers are in order to develop possible solutions or develop acceptable alternatives.
The Barriers
An examination of gender, sexuality and the roles in sport that society expects, accentuates the stereotypical concepts of what is feminine and what is masculine. Stereotypically (though unique in different cultural settings) masculinity is having the qualities and appearances that have been traditionally linked with having muscles, strength, aggression, logic, leadership and competitiveness. In contrast, being feminine is about possessing the qualities and appearance that has been traditionally linked with being soft, gentle, passive, intuitive, responsive and cooperative. Sport has traditionally been associated with the concept of masculinity and it still embodies essential masculine traits; historically a sport was a way men measured their heterosexual male superiority against other men. The stereotyping of gender roles in sport is not just confined to the developing world. In the developed world it is predominantly women who encounter discrimination through gender stereotyping in sport, with respect to levels of media coverage, salary contracts and sponsorships (Huggins and Randell 2007). In contrast, successful male athletes become heroes and idols to many in the developed and the developing world. In Nigeria the French soccer star Thiery Henry, at the height of his career with Arsenal FC, was considered Igwe (Monarch) amongst his fandom. Again, in contrast, successful heterosexual female and gay athletes receive media coverage when risking disrupting social order with sensationalized stories that are considered to be against perceived stereotypical norms (Meier, 2005; Olaoluwa & Adejayan, 2010). In the developing world it continues to be women that encounter the majority of discrimination through gender stereotyping. The issues that they face include gaining access to sport, as well as challenging the existing cultural gender roles in their countries, and challenging the concepts of what is feminine and what is masculine (Huggins and Randell 2007). Women in the developing world that are seen to participate in sport are risking their ‘femininity’ and because of this they are risking their place within society (Saavedra, 2005).
Sport is a physical activity; if a woman wants to play sport she has to at least display some of the qualities that are traditionally and stereotypically associated with man and masculinity. In traditionally patriarchal sub-Saharan Africa children are introduced to their socially differentiated roles at a very early age. The son’s role is seen as the future heads of the household and the main source of income, whilst the daughter’s role is one of domestication and obedience (Kambarami, 2006; McDowell & Pringle, 1992). Daughters who participate in sports are therefore seen to be acting in unfeminine ways and are considered a disgrace by their families, as a daughter’s role is to behave like a lady in order to attract a husband and become a mother and homemaker (Meier, 2005). Time and energy is dedicated to fulfilling family obligations. In Zimbabwe, food, safety, shelter, family and health are the primary concerns of girls with little free time available for sport or leisure time. Girls concentrate on what they see their mothers doing and thereby they replicate the skills that have kept their mothers and grandmothers subjugated for generations. While boys have very few chores to do, which gives them the gift of time for outdoor activities, as they play with balls, run along roads, climb trees, jump over rivers and gullies, boys at an early age get to identify their sporting talents (Saavedra, 2005; Manyonganise, 2010).
Losing femininity, or the perceived loss of femininity by society, is a major barrier that prevents women and girls from getting involved in sport across developing countries. As a consequence of these barriers women’s sport in developing countries lacks female role models (Meier, 2005). Copying actions and behaviours, and by interacting socially with peers within the values and concepts of moral good sportspersonship, are some of the fundamental ways that young people learn. The observation of positive role models engaging in sport plays a crucial role in developing the skills and qualities of a good sportsperson that younger children need. Positive role models can be parents, mentors, teachers, coaches and peers, if their attitudes, behaviours, and the programme that they are promoting is a moral one. Unfortunately the lack of female athletes, teachers, coaches, leaders and decision makers in sports and in schools, is another barrier in achieving equity in sports and physical education (Saavedra, 2005).
The concept of safety and sport relates to the physical risk associated with participating in an activity, the standard of the equipment and the facilities that are available, the location of the facility and the logistics required to get to and from the event, and the verbal harassment and physical violence towards women and men or girls and boys (Saavedra, 2005). In Zimbabwe, like many other sub-Saharan countries, man owns the public spaces and travels there freely, where the women’s domain is in the privacy of the home. Women and girls have their physical mobility controlled by man, and as a consequence, society creates moral spaces that have been described as safe spaces for women such as the home, church, markets, clinics or in the tailors. Access to these spaces thus fulfills the concept of woman in her domestic role of homemaker and mother. Space is crucial for physical exercise, but gaining access to safe spaces can be difficult particularly as girls approach adolescence and are faced with even greater restrictions on their mobility which effects their participation. Regrettably for women, sport stadia, swimming pools, gymnasiums and training grounds all fall within the category of public places that are considered unsafe and immoral (Brady & Khan, 2002; Manyonganise, 2010; Ramtohul, 2010).
Harassment and violence can come from other athletes, teachers, coaches, family, spectators who are there to watch the game, or even passersby such as groups of street boys dependending on where the event is taking place. An example of violence combined with expected obligations of a girl’s role within a family in sub-Saharan Africa, identifies a 15-year-old girl describing her father’s opinion towards her starting to play sport, in this example football in Kenya with the Mathare Youth Sports Association (MYSA):
When I started playing for MYSA my father would say that there is
no football for girls, and he would beat me up. So whenever I wanted
to go and play, my mother would cover up for me by saying that she
had sent me somewhere. (Brady and Khan, 2002 p.14)
Challenging social expectations, traditional cultures and breaking sexual stereotypes will enviably come across resistance.
Why Physical Education and Sport are Different
Definitions of physical education and sport.
One of the problems faced in explaining differences between physical education and sport is that thee is no single accepted definition of either. There are a number of definitions, or at least descriptions, of physical education and sport.
With regard to physical education, the National Curriculum Physical Education Working Group (NCPEWG) stated that:
Physical education educates young people in and through the use and knowledge of the body and its movement. It:
One of the problems faced in explaining differences between physical education and sport is that thee is no single accepted definition of either. There are a number of definitions, or at least descriptions, of physical education and sport.
With regard to physical education, the National Curriculum Physical Education Working Group (NCPEWG) stated that:
Physical education educates young people in and through the use and knowledge of the body and its movement. It:
- Develops physical competence and enables pupils to engage in worthwhile physical activities.
- Promotes physical development and teaches pupils to value the benefits of participation in physical activity whilst at school and throughout life.
- Develops artistic and aesthetic understanding within and through movement.
- Helps to establish self-esteem through the development of physical confidence and helps pupils to cope with both success and failure in competitive and co-operative physical activities.
Physical education also contributes to:
- The development of problem-solving skills
- The development of inter-personal skills
- The forging of links between the school and the community, and across cultures.
Physical education aims to develop physical competence so that pupils are able to move efficiently, effectively and safely and understand what they are doing. It is essentially a way of learning through action, awareness and observation.
On the other hand, the council of Europe in its European Sports Charter (1992) stated that:
Sports means all forms of physical activity which, through casual or organized participation, aims at improving physical fitness and mental well-being, forming social relationships or obtaining results in competition at all levels.
To the School Sport Forum, sport covered:
- Competitive games and sports...
- Outdoor pursuits, in which participants seek to negotiate some particular 'terrain'...
- Aesthetic movement... e.g. dance, figure skating, forms of rhythmic gymnastics and recreational swimming;
- Conditioning activity... improving or maintaining physical working capacity and engendering subsequently a feeling of general well-being.
This broad interpretation allows for a range of interests to be acknowledged, and for many forms of participation to be encountered within the provision of 'sport'.
Despite similarities in, and possible overlap between, some definitions, many people have concluded that physical education and sport are not the same. Murdoch (1990) viewed physical education and sport as 'distinct phenomena'. Further, NCPEWG identified physical education as being unique and different to sport:
Sport covers a range of physical activities in which adults and young people may participate. Physical education on the other hand is a process of leaning, the context being mainly physical. The purpose of this process is to develop specific knowledge, skills and understanding and to promote physical competence. Different sporting activities can and do contribute to that learning process, and the learning enables participation in sport. The focus however is on the child and his or her development of physical competence, rather than on the activity.
This suggests ways in which physical education and sport are different of distinct and not synonymous...
Central differences between Physical Education & Sport
Physical education is essentially an educational process whereas the focus in sport is on the activity
The NCPEWG (1991) emphasized that, in physical education the focus is on the process of learning in a mainly physical context, whereas in sport greater focus is placed on the activity and the emphasis may be placed on the end product, i.e. the performance or outcome.
'In physical education the emphasis is on learning in a mainly physical context. The purpose of the learning is to develop specific knowledge, skills and understanding and to promote physical development and competence. The learning promote participation in sport' (National Curriculum Council (NNC) 1992).
On the other hand,
'Sport is the term applied to a range of physical activities where emphasis is on participation and competition. Different sporting activities can and do contribute to learning' (NNC, 1992).
Murdoch (1997) stressed that through participating in physical education it is important that pupils are equipped to 'continue to be engaged in the learning process even after hey have left school'. She emphasised that the process of learning through planning, performance and evaluating gives integrity to the learning of discrete activity areas and 'strengthens the uniqueness of the process to physical education'. Activities are selected for inclusion in a physical education program me for a particular purpose...
This difference between physical education and sport can be illustrated by an example. Whereas a gymnastics coach, for example, might simply be concerned with producing the correct pattern of movement for a particular vault, the physical education teacher might focus on assisting the pupil to engage in a process which involves planning their approach (for example, length, speed of run up, angle of approach), performing the action and evaluating the performance (establishing the feeling, repeating the movement exactly, varying the movement, adapting the movement through repositioning the hands and so on). The focus on the learning process may provide a knowledge of principles which asset the pupil in learning new skills.
This is linked to physical education commencing from the perspective of the child and dimensions of the child's physical learning whereas sport starts from the perspective of the activity that is to be learned. Talbot reminded us that in physical eduction 'the game is not the thing, the child is' (Talbot, 1987). Further, Lee stressed that 'while training and coaching may be concerned with developing performance, education is concerned with developing people' (Lee, 1986).
Physical education involves motor skill development and need not involve sporting activities.
A focus on the child requires careful consideration of childrens' needs at different stages in their development. During the early (pr5 or nursery) years, physical activity has a base in play and playfulness. Structured support for learning through physical education assists the child to develop from this base. During the nursery and primary phases of education, physical education should encompass the learning of fundamental motor skills to form the foundation for participation in a range of physical activities. The primary years are important for helping children to gain mastery of their own bodies. Physical education is concerned with motor skill development and not just learning particular sports. Thus, the focus in physical education for very young pupils - nursery - KS1 - should not be on competing, which is necessarily involved in sports context, as this may be to advanced for their stage of cognitive development. The foundation provided at this stage can be the basis for 'more formal phases of participation in the activities of physical education and sport, moving from simple to complex versions' (Murdoch, 1990). Activities incorporated into physical education at later stages may not necessarily be sports.
Physical education is a concept broader than sport
Physical education is a concept broader than sport. Physical education encompasses sport but also embraces other physical activities which may or may not be sport, depending on reasons for participation, e.g. outdoor and adventurous activities (OAA). These activities are, or may not be, conceptually linked to competition which is inherent in sports. There are aspects of OAA that usefully form part of the learning process to enable the aims of physical education to be fulfilled, such as planning and taking part in an expedition. However, these do not constitute involvement in sport or preparation for such involvement. Thus, there is no inherent necessity that all forms of physical education should foster and promote the kind of competitive behavior which is essential to sport.
In physical education, sports should be selected for inclusion in the curriculum for the potential they have for the learning that is to take place and not vice versa. If the focus in physical education were only on sport there could be a narrow focus to the curriculum.
Further, there are a number of aims for physical education which can be achieved through participation in activities other than sports. One of the aims of physical education can be the aspirations for as many pupils as possible to integrate physical activity as part of their lifestyle. Some pupils may not choose to integrate sport into their lifestyle, but may choose other forms of physical activity.
Tinning identified a danger of using sport education in physical education and highlighted the need to de-emphasize the 'educational purpose of physical education' (Tinning, 1995). He considered that the work of physical education professionals would be
better facilitated by reaffirming that sport is merely one medium (in physical activity) for the development of physically educated citizens. It should not be the central focus of physical education in schools. To allow physical education to be distilled to sport... is to sell our subject short. Certainly sport should be part of a physical education curriculum... but we must remember that sport is not the most reinforcing movement form for countless individuals (Tinning, 1995).
Physical education should benefit every pupil in the group regardless of ability and enthusiasm for the subject; therefore an emphasis on sport and with it an emphasis on competition and competitive success (e.g. at inter-house level on a traditional sports day or at inter-school level) can result in finite resources being used for a few elite performers rather than being available to encourage participation in physical activity for all. 'If one spends a disproportionate amount of time on just a few pupils (in physical education or elsewhere) then it is only to be expected that a higher level of performance will be achieved' (Leaman, 1988). Many would regard such an allocation of resources as basically unfair and to be avoided in a school. Thus, 'instead of the expense of transporting a small minority of students to distant corners of the country, a lunchtime and after-school activity program me could be developed that appeals to the full spectrum of youngsters' interests (Fox, 1996).
Most would agree, however, that the pursuit of excellence is important for the able performer. Physical education teachers have a role in identifying potential and enabling pupils to develop their potential, but whose role is it to develop excellence? To what degree should excellence be a focus for schools if it is at the expense of less assistance, effort, time and resources being given to the less able to help them to achieve their potential? What role should physical education and physical education staff play in the development of excellence? As Fox (1996) contended:
The school is not wholly responsible; as many children will take part in swimming, gymnastics, dance and other sports activities... Increasingly also, youngsters play sport through the club system on weekends and older adolescents are beginning to enroll in formal exercise classes and take membership at fitness clubs. An important role for schools is to make links and alliances with these alternative agencies.
Thus, identification of potential may occur in physical education time, but development of that potential to achieve excellence can occur in extra-curricular time or through pupils being referred to opportunities at local sports clubs or other types of community provision. Developing potential is an integral part of the sports development continuum (ESC, 1997).
Notes taken from Physical education and sport by Susan Capal
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